New Testament

 

Backgrounds

 

 

Notes for NT601 New Testament Backgrounds

 

 

 

 

 

                                                     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Prepared by

Robert C. Newman

Professor of New Testament

 

 

Copyright 1991

                                                     

 

This syllabus or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form without permission from the author.  Permission will be granted to reviewers, authors, teachers and others engaged in the promotion of biblical studies.

 

 

 

Biblical Theological Seminary

200 N. Main Street

Hatfield, PA  19440

 

                                                        TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE COURSE                                                                                         5

 

 

PART ONE:  HISTORY:  THE INTERTESTAMENT PERIOD                                            7

 

I. INTRODUCTION                                                                                                                        7

 

            A. Our Sources of Information                                                                                             7    

            B. Daniel's Overview                                                                                                            8    

 

II. PALESTINE UNDER PERSIA (539-331 BC)                                                                           9

 

            A. History of the Medo-Persian Empire                                                                               9    

            B. The Aramaic Language                                                                                                     9    

            C. Synagogue & Temple                                                                                                     10   

 

III. PALESTINE UNDER THE GREEKS (331-c160 BC)                                                           11

 

            A. Alexander and His Successors                                                                                       11   

            B. Hellenism                                                                                                                       12   

            C. The Septuagint Translation                                                                                             12   

 

IV. JEWISH INDEPENDENCE UNDER THE HASMONEANS (160-63 BC)                         13

 

            A. Antiochus 4 & the Abomination of Desolation                                                              13   

            B. The Maccabean Revolt                                                                                                   13   

            C. The Hasmonean Dynasty                                                                                               14   

            D. Pharisees, Sadducees & Essenes                                                                                    15  

 

V. PALESTINE UNDER THE ROMANS (65 BC-135 AD & beyond)                                      16

 

            A. End of the Hasmonean Dynasty                                                                                     16     

            B. The Herod Family                                                                                                          16    

            C. Messianic Expectation                                                                                                    17    

            D. The End of the Jewish State                                                                                           18    

            E. Palestine after the Fall of Jerusalem                                                                                19    

 

 

 

 

PART TWO:  NEW TESTAMENT GEOGRAPHY & CHRONOLOGY                             20

 

I. THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE                                                                                      20

 

            A. Physical Features                                                                                                           20    

            B. Political Features                                                                                                            22    

 

 

II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF JERUSALEM                                                                                 223

 

            A. The Valleys around Jerusalem                                                                                       23    

            B. The Hills around Jerusalem                                                                                            24    

            C. The City Walls of the NT Period                                                                                    24    

            D. Sections of the City                                                                                                        24    

            E. Major Buildings, Structures                                                                                            25    

            F. Other Sites re/ Jesus' Ministry                                                                                        26    

 

III. MEDITERRANEAN GEOGRAPHY                                                                                     26

 

            A. Physical Features                                                                                                           26    

            B. Political Features                                                                                                            27    

 

IV. THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT                                                           29

 

            A. Origin of the Christian Era                                                                                             29     

            B. Gospel Chronology                                                                                                        30    

            C. Apostolic Chronology                                                                                                    31    

 

 

PART THREE:  NEW TESTAMENT CULTURE & ARCHAEOLOGY                            35

 

I. MONEY                                                                                                                                      35

 

            A. History of Money                                                                                                          35    

            B. Money in N.T. Times                                                                                                     35  

            C. Inscriptions & Designs on NT Money                                                                           36    

 

II. THE HOME                                                                                                                               38

 

            A. Clothing                                                                                                                         38    

            B. Housing                                                                                                                          38    

            C. Agriculture                                                                                                                     39    

 

III. SOCIETY                                                                                                                                 40

 

            A. Buildings, Architecture                                                                                                  40    

            B. Cities                                                                                                                              40   

            C. Business                                                                                                                         41    

            D. Transportation                                                                                                                41    

            E. Religion                                                                                                                          42    

 

IV. INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY                                                                             42

 

            A. Definition of Archaeology                                                                                             42    

            B. Methods of Archaeology                                                                                                43    

            C. Some Archaeological Sites of the NT Period                                                                 44    

                        1. Jerusalem                (44)

                        2. Capernaum              (45)

                        3. Caesarea                  (45)

                        4. Herodium                (47)

                        5. Masada                    (48)

                        6. Corinth                    (49)

                        7. Rome                       (50)

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE COURSE

 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

 Danker, Frederick W. Multipurpose Tools for Bible Study.  St. Louis: Concordia, 1960.

Harrington, Daniel J. The New Testament: a Bibliography. Theological and Biblical Resources, vol. 2.  Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1985.

Hort, Erasmus.  The Bible Book:  Resources for Reading the New Testament.  New York:  Crossroad, 1983.

Hurd, John C.  A Bibliography of N.T. Bibliographies. Seabury, 1966.

Scholer, David M.  A Basic Bibliographic Guide for N.T. Exegesis. 2nd ed.  Grand Rapids:  Eerdmans, 1973.

Thiselton, Anthony C.  New Testament Commentary Survey.  Revised by Don Carson.  Leicester, England: Theological Students Fellowship, 1977.

 

HISTORY

Barrett, C.K.  The New Testament Background:  Selected Documents. New York: Harper and Row, 1961.

Bonsirven, Joseph.  Palestinian Judaism in the Time of Jesus.  New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964.

Bruce, F.F.  Israel and the Nations.  Grand Rapids:  Eerdmans, 1963.

________.  New Testament History.  New York: Doubleday, 1969.

Ferguson, Everett.  Backgrounds of Early Christianity.  Grand Rapids:  Eerdmans, 1987, 1993.

Foerster, Werner.  From the Exile to Christ.  Philadelphia: Fortress, 1964.

Gowan, Donald E.  Bridge Between the Testaments.  Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1976.

Jaegersma, Henk.  A History of Israel from Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba.  Philadelphia:  Fortress, 1986.

Kee, Howard Clark.  The New Testament in Context: Sources and Documents.  Englewood Cliffs, NJ:  Prentice‑Hall, 1984.

Lohse, Eduard.  The New Testament Environment.  Nashville: Abingdon, 1976.

Pfeiffer, Charles F.  Between the Testaments.  Grand Rapids:  Baker, 1959.

Reicke, Bo.  The New Testament Era.  Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968.

Rostovzeff, M. Greece.  New York: Oxford, 1963 reprint of 1930.

________. Rome. New York: Oxford, 1960 reprint of 1928.

Vermes, Geza.  The Dead Sea Scrolls in English. 2nd ed.  Baltimore:  Penguin, 1965.

Whiston, William, ed.  Josephus: Complete Works.  Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1960.

 

GEOGRAPHY & CHRONOLOGY

Aharoni, Yohanan and Avi‑Yonah, Michael.  The Macmillan Bible Atlas. 2nd ed.  New York: Macmillan, 1977.

Baly, Denis.  Basic Biblical Geography.  Philadelphia: Fortress,  1987.

________. The Geography of the Bible.  New York: Harper and Bros., 1957.

Cleave, Richard and Monson, James.  Student Map Manual: Historical Geography of the Bible Lands.  Grand Rapids:  Zondervan, 1980.

Finegan, Jack.  Handbook of Biblical Chronology.  Princeton: Princeton Univ Press, 1964.

Frank, Harry T.  Atlas of the Bible Lands.  rev. ed.  New York: Hammond, 1984.

Hoehner, Harold.  Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977.

Rasmussen, Carl G.  NIV Atlas of the Bible.  Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Smith, George Adam.  Historical Geography of the Holy Land.  16th ed.  London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1910.

 

CULTURE & ARCHAEOLOGY

Avi‑Yonah, M. and Stern, E., eds.  Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land.  4 vol.  Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‑Hall, 1975.

Blaiklock, Edward M.  The Archaeology of the New Testament.  Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970.

________ and Harrison, R.K., eds.  The New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology.  Grand Rapids:  Zondervan, 1983.

________. The World of the New Testament.  London: Ark and Ft. Washington: Christian Literature Crusade, 1983.

Daniel‑Rops, Henri.  Daily Life in the Time Of Jesus.  New York:  Hawthorne, 1962.

Edersheim, Alfred.  Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days Of Christ.  London: James Clarke, 1961 reprint of 1883.

Finegan, Jack.  The Archaeology of the New Testament: The Life of Jesus & the Beginning of the Early Church.  Princeton: Princeton Univ Press, 1969.

________. The Archaeology of the New Testament: The Mediterranean World of the Early Christian Apostles.  Boulder, CO:  Westview, 1981.

Gorsline, Douglas.  What People Wore: A Visual History of Dress from Ancient Times to 20th-Century America.  New York: Bonanza, 1952.

Jeremias, Joachim.  Jerusalem in the Time Of Jesus.  Philadelphia:  Fortress, 1967.

Landels, J. G.  Engineering in the Ancient World.  Berkeley: Univ of California Press, 1978.

Mare, W. Harold.  The Archaeology of the Jerusalem Area.  Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

Metzger, Bruce M.  Lexical Aids to Students of N.T. Greek. new ed.  Princeton, NJ: published by author, 1977.

Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome.  The Holy Land:  An Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700.  New York:  Oxford, 1980.

Packer, J.I., Merrill C. Tenney and William White, Jr.  The World of the New Testament.  Nashville: Nelson, 1982.

Pfeiffer, Charles F., ed.  The Biblical World: A Dictionary Of Biblical Archaeology.  Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966.

Ramsay, William M.  The Cities of St. Paul.  Grand Rapids: Baker, 1960 reprint of 1907.

Stephens, William H.  The New Testament World In Pictures.  Nashville:  Broadman, 1987.

Stevenson, James.  The Catacombs:  Life and Death in Early Christianity.  Nashville:  Thomas Nelson, 1985.

Tenney, Merrill C.  New Testament Times.  Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965.

Unger, Merrill F.  Archaeology and the New Testament.  Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962.

Yamauchi, Edwin.  The Archaeology of New Testament Cities in Western Asia Minor.  Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980.

________. Harper's World of The New Testament.  New York: Harper and Row, 1981.

 

                                                                             


PART ONE:

                                   HISTORY:  THE INTERTESTAMENT PERIOD

                                           (THROUGH THE BAR KOCHBA WAR)

 

I. Introduction

 

A. Our Sources of Information for the Period

 

            1. OT Prediction

Daniel gives an overview of the period thru visions in chap 2 (statue) and ch 7 (4 wild animals); see below

                        Also gives some details, in Dan 8, 9 & 11 especially

 

            2. OT Apocrypha & Pseudepigrapha

                        Religious writings of Jews, mostly during IT period

                        Some posing as Scripture, some not

                        Give insight into culture, religious ideas, sects, Biblical interp during period

                                    1 Maccabees esp important re/ history of revolt;

 2 Macc also adds valuable information, though considered somewhat less reliable

 

            3. Philo

                        Born c 20 BC, died after AD 40

                        Alexandrian Jew, member of very prominent family

Studied Greek philosophy, tried to amalgamate OT w/ selected ideas from Gk philosophy

                        Influential among Christians in allegorizing Scripture

Shows one variety of Jewish reaction to Hellenism, namely partial accommodation

 

            4. Josephus

                        Born AD 37, died after 100

                        Pharisee, member of very prominent Jerusalem family

                        Involved on both sides of Jewish war 66‑73

                        Wrote Jewish War at request of Vespasian/Titus, c 80

                        Wrote Antiquities to show Jews were ancient race, c 95

                        Both cover IT period & NT period, using some sources no longer extant

 

            5. Dead Sea Scrolls

                        Literature written/copied by Qumran sect, apparently a variety of Essenes

                        Stricter than Pharisees, but wrote some "Scripture" of their own

                        Show eschatological interests of Jews at time


 

            6. Rabbinic Literature

                        Oral traditions of rabbis

                        Midrash(im) ‑ tradition textually organized

                        Mishnah, Gemara, Talmud ‑ topically organized

                        Not much historical; mostly written centuries later

But give flavor & details of Pharisaic theology, ethics, practice; much on temple practice in last generation or so before AD 70

 

B. Daniel's Overview of the Inter‑Testament Period

 

            1. Nebuchadnezzar's Image (Dan 2)

                        a. Pictured (vv 32‑35)

                                    (0) Statue & action

                                    (1) Head of Gold (v 32)

                                    (2) Breast & Arms of Silver (32)

                                    (3) Belly & Sides of Bronze (32)

                                    (4) Legs of Iron (33)

                                    (5) Feet, part Iron, part Clay (33)

                                    (6) Stone smashes image, grows to fill earth (34‑35)

                        b. Explained (vv 38‑45)

                                    (0) What will happen hereafter (45)

                                    (1) Nebuchadnezzar's universal rule (38)

                                    (2) Another kingdom inferior (?) to Neb's (39)

                                    (3) 3rd kingdom to rule over all the earth (39)

                                    (4) 4th kingdom strong as iron, breaking (40)

                                    (5) The same (?), part strong, part broken (41‑3)

                                    (6) God will set up a permanent kingdom (44)

 

            2. Daniel's Four Wild Animals (Dan 7)

                        a. Pictured (vv 3-14, more details in 19, 21-23)

                                    (0) Diverse beasts from sea (3)

                                    (1) lion w/ eagle's wings; plucked, lifted, heart (4)

                                    (2) bear raised on one side; 3 ribs in mouth (5)

                                    (3) leopard, 4 wings, 4 heads (6)

(4) dreadful, terrible, iron teeth, bronze claws, 10 horns, 11th rises, wars w/ saints (7-8, 19,21-22)

                                    (5) 4th destroyed, dominion given to son of man (9-14)

                        b. Explained (17-26)

                                    (0‑4) 4 kings who will arise from earth (17)

(4) 4th kingdom, diverse from others; horns = kings; wears out saints for 3½ times (23‑26)

                                    (5) Saints take kingdom & possess it forever (18)

 

  


            3. The Kingdoms                                                       

                        a. Babylon (609‑539 BC)

                        b. Medo‑Persia (539‑331 BC)            \           will use these

                        c. Greece (331‑30 BC)                        |           three kingdoms

                        d. Rome (30 BC‑present?)                  /           to structure our history

 

 

II. Palestine under Persia (539‑331 BC)

 

A. History of the Medo‑Persian Empire

 

            1. The Rise of Cyrus

                        Medes already powerful before 600 BC, helping Babylonians destroy Assyria

Babylonians hold Medes at bay, but begin to weaken with death of Nebuchadnezzar (562)

Cyrus (559) inherits small kingdom of Anshan (later called Persia), tributary to Medes; Bab king Nabonidus provides financial support to harass Medes

                        Cyrus defeats Medes (550); Nabonidus cancels support!

                        Cyrus has self crowned king of Medes, forming dual monarchy

                        Cyrus takes Lydia, rest of Asia Minor (546), then Babylon (539)

 

            2. The Return of the Jews (under Cyrus 1: 539‑530)

                        Unlike Assyrians & Babylonians, Cyrus did not wish to offend other religions

Takes part in New Year ceremony at Babylon (537) to become rightful king of Babylon

                        Revokes Assyr & Bab deportation policy, allowing Jews to return (Ezr 1:2‑4)

 

            3. The Rebuilding of the (2nd) Temple (Darius 1: 521‑486)

Cyrus initially allowed rebuilding to start, but stopped it due to opposition of neighbors (Ezr 6:3‑5; Ezr 4)

                        Jews allowed to rebuild temple after showing loyalty at accession of Darius

Temple completed 515 under leadership of prophets Haggai & Zechariah, governor Zerubbabel & high priest Jeshua

 

            4. Revival in Judah & Rebuilding Walls of Jerusalem (Artaxerxes 1: 465‑423)

 Ezra (c458) comes from Babylonia, restores people to observance of law, w/ permission of king

                        Nehemiah (445) sent by king as governor w/ permission to rebuild walls

 

B. The Aramaic Language

 

            1. Old Language of Syria (upper Euphrates)

                        language of Laban (Gen 31:47; prob Abraham's in Haran)

 

            2. Becomes Diplomatic Language of the Ancient Near East

                        Assyrian Empire (c700; Isa 36:11)

                        Babylonian Empire (c600; Dan 2:4)

                        Persian Empire (c450; Ezra 4:11ff)    

 

            3. Adopted by the Jews

                        apparently during Babylonian exile (see Neh 8:7‑8)

                        still in use at time of Christ (Mk 5:41: talitha kum; 7:34: ephatha)

                        used in rabbinic Talmud, c550 AD

                        still used (w/ different script) in Syrian church today

 

            4. Aramaic's Relation to the Bible

                        a. Aramaic Passages in the Bible

                                    Daniel chs 2‑7; most of Ezra chs 4-7

                                    One verse in prophets, Jer 10:11

                                    One word in pentateuch, Gen 31:47

                        b. The Targums

                                    oral translations of Bible into Aramaic, perhaps dating back to Bab exile

                                    completed & written down after NT times:

                                                Pentateuch: Targum of Onkelos, Palestinian Targum

                                                Prophets: Targ of Jonathan

 

C. Synagogue & Temple

 

            1. Rise of the Synagogue

                        place of worship for those unable to attend temple

                        prayer & Bible study rather than sacrifice

                        time of origin obscure:

                                    before exile? (Ps 74:8)

                                    most think during exile when no temple

                                    some suggest after Maccabean revolt

                        continued alongside 2nd temple (515 BC ‑ AD 70)

                        after destruction of 2nd temple, only place of worship

 

            2. The Intertestament Temples

                        a. Second (Jerusalem) Temple (515 BC ‑ AD 70)

                                    orthodox, continuation of Mosaic regulations

                        b. Samaritan (Mt. Gerizim) Temple (450/330 ‑ 128 BC)

                                    Samaritans, w/ help from renegade priests

                                    destroyed by Hasmoneans (Maccabees)

                                    still a holy site in NT times (Jn 4:20) & even today

                        c. Elephantine (Egyptian) Temple (built before 525 BC;

                                    destroyed 410; prob rebuilt by 402; destroyed c 390 BC)

                                    Jewish mercenaries, poss refugees from Manasseh

                                    polytheistic influence? cp Jer 44:15‑19: "Queen of Heaven"

                                    app animal sacrifices before 410 (see BAR May/June 95)

may have gotten help in rebuilding from Jerusalem under stipulation that no animal sacrifice

 

                        d. (Later) Leontopolis Temple (c160 BC ‑ AD 72)

                                    built in Maccabean period by refugee high priest Onias 3

                                    destroyed by Romans to eliminate rallying point for Jews

 

 

III. Palestine under the Greeks (331‑c160 BC)

 

A. Alexander & his Successors

 

            1. Alexander (336‑323)

                        succeeds assassinated father at age 20 (336)

                        invades Asia Minor (334) w/ 35,000 men, wins victory at Granicus River.

                        victory at Issus (333) opens Syria, Palestine, Egypt

                        victory at Gaugamela (331) destroys Persian empire

marches east to India, finally turning back at demand of soldiers; dies in Babylon planning further conquests

begins important mixing of East & West, including Hellenism (see below) and spread of Greek language

 

            2. The Struggle for Succession (323‑301)

                        Alexander's son still baby at A's death; his brother is incompetent

                        Generals, keeping throne for son, fall to fighting

Antigonus seems to be headed for complete control (315), but others gang up & kill him in battle of Ipsus (301)

                        eventually empire broken into several pieces:

                                    Lysimachus ruling Thrace

                                    Cassander ruling Macedonia

                                    Seleucus ruling Asia Minor, Mesopotamia

                                    Ptolemy ruling Egypt & Syria

                        only latter two important for history of Palestine

 

            3. The Ptolemaic Dynasty (to 30 BC; over Palestine 301‑1­98)

                        grabbed off Palestine while others defeating Antigonus

reasonably favorable treatment of Jews both in Palestine, Egypt (large no. settle in Alexandria)

 

            4. The Seleucid Dynasty (to 63 BC; controls Pal 198‑c160)

                        in long series of wars finally got Pal from Ptolemies

Antiochus 4 favors Hellenistic Jews, allowing them to establish Jerusalem as Hellenistic city

                        Ant 4 later attempts to abolish Judaism (168), leading to Maccabean revolt (167)

 

B. Hellenism

 

            Greek culture as it developed in East after Alexander

            Influenced Judaism and (somewhat) influenced by it

 

            1. Religion

                        syncretism (mixing) of eastern & Greek polytheisms

                        some attempts to mix with Judaism

 

            2. Philosophy

                        various schools in Greece spread Eastward

                        most important: Epicurean, Stoic, Platonic

                        many Jews adopted various philosophical ideas

                                    e.g., Philo of Alex (selection of platonic, stoic)

 

            3. Politics

                        independent city‑states in Greece

                        modified in East, as under imperial control of Ptolemies & Seleucids

                        citizenship ‑ more restricted in numbers than modern citizenship

 

            4. Influence on Jews

growth of Hellenistic Jews, attracted to one or more features of Hellenism; some radical, some moderate

reaction against Hellenism by Hasidim, Jews determined to be faithful to God's covenant

 

            5. Influence of Judaism on Hellenism

                        Bible translated into Greek

                        many Gentiles attracted to God of Bible via synagogues

 

C. The Septuagint Translation

 

            1. Origin of the Version (c250 BC)

                        a. Letter of Aristeas & its Story

                                    claims to be written by pagan Greek about 250 BC

72 Jewish elders from Palestine come to Egypt & translate Law at commission of Ptolemy 2

                        b. Later Additions to Story

                                    translation covers whole OT

                                    translators got identical results working in pairs

                        c. General Opinion of Story Today

                                    Aristeas probably written by Jew about 100 BC

                                    But some features prob authentic:

                                                -translation into Greek made at Alexandria

                                                -Pentateuch translated as a unit about 250 BC

                                                -scrolls (poss translators) from Jerusalem

                                                -Ptolemy 2 allowed work, may have given aid

 

            2. Importance of Version

                        a. Longest translation of any ancient writing known in antiquity

                        b. Gives text of OT century or so before oldest Heb texts for most of OT

                        c. Set pattern for Greek theological terms used in OT & NT

                        d. Put OT in universal language of Mediterranean

                        e. Became OT of early church

 

 

IV. Jewish Independence under the Hasmoneans (160‑63 BC)

 

A. Antiochus 4 Epiphanes & the Abomination of Desolation

 

            1. Usurps throne from nephew (175), who was under age

            2. Strong advocate of Hellenism to unify diverse empire 

3. Among Jews favors Hellenistic faction (vs. Hasidim) allows them to refound Jerusalem as "Antiochia"

4. Deposes orthodox high priest Onias 3 for O's Hellenistic brother Jason (for a bribe); then Jason for Menelaus (bigger bribe; not even high priestly family)

5. Fuming from defeat in Egypt (168), Ant 4 finds Jason has rebelled; puts down revolt & tries to destroy Judaism via decrees forbidding circumcision & kosher, destroying Scripture, rededicating temple to Zeus (himself)

 

B. The Maccabean Revolt (167‑134)

 

            1. Origin

Seleucids go through towns of Judea, enforcing Ant 4's decrees and commanding pagan sacrifice

At Modin, aged priest Mattathias kills Jew who comes forward to sacrifice, then official & his few troops

                        Matt & 5 sons call for armed resistance, flee to mountains

 

            2. Judah the Maccabee (166‑160)

                        3rd son of Mattathias; named leader at M's death

                        military nickname Macc means "hammer"/ "hammerer"

                        Judah M leads guerilla campaign, destroying several Sel armies          

                        JM's forces grow w/ success, matching Sel escalation

                        Antiochus is busy in E, having left Lysias in charge in W

Lysias invades Palestine w/ large army in 164, but army nearly wiped out in ambush at Emmaus

Macc's take Jerusalem (exc citadel), cleanse & rededicate temple (Dec 164); origin of Hannukah (Feast of Lights)

                        Meanwhile Antiochus 4 dies (163), Lysias becomes regent

Lysias offers peace terms acceptable to Hasidim but not to Macc's, thus splitting opposition

JM, heavily outnumbered, killed in battle (160)

 

            3. Jonathan (160‑142)

                        brother of Judah

                        escapes defeat w/ a few followers, become guerillas again

but w/ Ant 4's death, successor Demetrius 2 faces challenge for Seleucid throne from Alexander Balas

Jonathan able to use diplomacy skillfully when both sides seek his aid; eventually becomes governor & high priest

                        finally killed (142) by Trypho, another contender for Seleucid throne

 

            4. Simon (142‑134)

                        last surviving son of Mattathias, succeeds Jonathan

supports Demetrius 2 against Trypho; in gratitude, Dem makes Judea tax‑exempt (virtually independent)

Simon proclaimed "gov & high priest forever" until true prophet comes to give further instructions (1 Macc 14:25‑49)

                        son‑in‑law murders Simon & 2 sons at banquet (134)

 

C. The Hasmonean Dynasty (134‑63)

 

            1. John Hyrcanus (134‑104)

                        son of Simon, not at banquet, succeeds father

                        becomes powerful militarily, while Seleucids weak

                        greatly expands Judean territory:

                                    -conquers coastal cities (gaining trade income)

                                    -takes Idumea (Edomites must become Jews or die, fulfilling Ezk 25:14)

                                    -conquers Samaria, destroys Mt. Gerizim temple

                        Rise of Pharisees & Sadducees

                                    first appear in history during JHs rule

JH originally favors Pharisees, but then dispute occurs and Sadducees gain his favor

 

            2. Aristobolus (103)

                        oldest son of JH, assumes throne, kills several of own bro's, imprisons another

                        first Jew to take title "king" since Babylonian conquest

                        conquers Galilee, leading to settlement of Jews there

                        dies w/in a year from fear, drink, disease

 

            3. Alexander Jannaeus (102‑76)

                        Arist's bro, released from prison & married by A's wife

AJ continues expansion of kingdom until nearly as big as David & Solomon's

Pharisees revolt, call in Syrians; AJ about to lose when Phar's defect to him; AJ wins, crucifies many Phar's

 

            4. Salome Alexandria (75‑67)

                        wife of A & AJ, succeeds at AJ's death

                        2 sons: 

                                    Hyrcanus 2 ‑ made high priest

                                    Aristobolus 2 ‑ given military command

 

            5. End of Hasmonean Independence (66‑63)

                        Salome dies, succeeded by Hyr 2 (supported by Phar's)

                        but Arist 2 (supported by Sadd's) takes throne from him

                        Hyr 2 flees, opens civil war, calls on Romans

 

D. Pharisees, Sadducees & Essenes

 

            1. Origins

                        rather obscure, but all 3 apparently arise in this period

Sadd's look like Hellenizers of Antiochus 4's time, but prob new growth under continued influence of Hellenism        

Phar's & Essenes app develop from Hasidim, Phar's accept, Essenes reject, arrangements of temple & esp priesthood during Macc period

 

            2. Theology:

 

 

Essenes

Pharisees

Sadducees

Name from hasid?

Names from parash?

Name from tsedek?

Super Pharisees, abandoned temple

Ritual purity, hedge around Law

More pragmatic, compromising

Calvinistic

Calvinistic

Arminian

OT + own secret books

OT + oral tradition

OT only

Immortality of soul?

Bodily resurrection

No survival

Emphasis on angels

Belief in angels

No angels

Emphasis on eschatology

Last judgment

No judgment

 

       

 

   

 

  

 

 

            3. Influence & Survival

 

Essenes

Pharisees

Sadducees

Few, more or less withdrawn

Not large, but popular support

Few richest families, especially chief priests

Withdrawn from politics, too

Important politically, dominant religiously

Dominant politically, but had to cooperate with Pharisees

Qumran destroyed AD 68, some later influence

Survive to dominate Judaism after AD 70

Destroyed with temple in AD 70

Wrote or copied Dead Sea Scrolls

Rabbinic literature by their heirs

No known writings survive

 

 

         

V. Palestine under the Romans (63 BC‑135 AD & beyond)

 

A. The End of the Hasmonean Dynasty (63 BC)

 

            1. Civil War between Hyrcanus 2 & Aristobolus 2

 

            2. Pompey Intervenes

                        Roman triumvir in E, mopping up Seleucid empire

                        Called in to arbitrate, decides in favor of Hyr

                        When resisted by Arist's forces, takes Jerus

                        Many Jews taken slaves, scattered thru Rom Emp

                        Judaea loses much of its conquered territories

                        Hyr 2 made "ethnarch" of Judea (incl Idumea, Perea, Galilee) rather than king

 

            3. The Pax Romana (c30 BC‑c170 AD)

                        2 centuries of peace over RE beginning w/ Augustus

                        Great growth in prosperity, reaches peak in 2nd century AD

                        Important for spread of Christianity in 1st century

                        Related features important for spread of Xy:

                                    -Roman roads

                                    -lack of national boundaries

 

B. The Herod Family

 

            1. Antipater

                        Idumean advisor to Hyr 2, power behind throne

                        Engineered Hyr 2Õs flight to Arabs & call for Roman help

                        Made Procurator of Judea (47 BC) for aiding Julius Caesar        

                        Made own sons Phasael & Herod administrators

                        Assassinated 43 BC

 

            2. Herod the Great (37‑4 BC)

 

                        a. Gains Power

                                    Appointed joint tetrarch w/ bro Phasael (42)

                                    Bro killed in Parthian invasion, Herod flees to Rome (40)        

                                    Senate appoints him King of Jews

                                    Herod returns w/ army, takes Jerusalem (37)

                                    Throne not secure till deaths of Anthony & Cleopa­tra (31)

 

                        b. His Troubles

Marries Hasmonean princess Mariamne (g‑dau of both Arist 2 & Hyr 2), divorcing 1st wife Doris

Doris & son Antipater later cause trouble, so does Mariamne's mother, Herod's own jealousy

Eventually H puts Mariamne to death, later her two sons Aristobolus & Alexander, finally Antipater

                                    Augustus: ÒBetter to be H's hus (pig) than his huios (son)Ó

 

                        c. His Accomplishments

                                    Territory ruled nearly size of HasmoneansÕ & DavidÕs

                                    Refurbishes Jerusalem Temple (19 BC‑66 AD)

                                    Other building projects: Caesarea, Sebaste, etc.

                                    Slaying of the Innocents (5 or 4 BC)

no extrabiblical confirmation, but cp treatment of own family, intention for leaders at his death

 

            3. Herod's Sons ‑ received his territory by will at death

                        a. Archelaus ‑ Judea/Samaria/Idumea (to AD 6)

                        b. Antipas ‑ Galilee/Peraea (to 39)

                        c. Philip ‑ Iturea/Trachonitis (to 34)

 

            4. Herod's Descendants ‑ by Mariamne (royal blood)

                        a. Herod Agrippa 1 ‑ King of Jews, AD 41‑44

                        b. Herod Agrippa 2 ‑ King (though not of Jews) dc AD 100

 

C. Messianic Expectation at the End of the I.T. Period

 

            1. Messianic Fervor

                        timing, influence in Jewish revolt

                        (see my "Time of the Messiah," in Evidence of Prophecy)

 

  


            2. The Person of the Messiah

                        Views change w/ time:

-early extra‑Bibl materials see Messiah as more than human, though no clear view of his deity;

                                    -later rabbinic material tends to minimize Messiah

 OT data posed various paradoxes re/ office, activity, type of coming, type of being; these solved by NT and Jesus (see my "NT Model of Messiah," Evidence of Prophecy)

 

            3. Various Views of the Messianic Period

                        a. Messianic period only (Millennium, on earth)

                                    [somewhat like Post‑Mill view]

                                    (1) Merely freedom for Israel ‑ R. Samuel

                                    (2) Miraculous phenomena ‑ 1 Enoch (1); Test 12 Patr

                        b. Eschaton only (Eternal State, heaven or paradise)

                                    [sort of A‑Mill view]

                                    1 Enoch (3), 2 Enoch

                        c. Both Messianic period and Eschaton (M.P. 1st, natural­ly)

                                    [sort of Pre‑Mill view]

                                    most common: 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, Pss Sol, most Rabbis

 

            4. The Order of Events (acc to view 3c)

                        a. Signs preceding end

                                    Moral decay, calamities, signs in heaven, forerunner

                        b. Messianic kingdom established

                                    (1) Return of Israel from exile

                                    (2) Punishment of nations

                                    (3) Messiah Rules (role in conquest varies)

                        c. The Days of the Messiah ("Millennium" in Xn theology)

                                    (1) Variable features (e.g., place of nations), but usually marvelous

                                    (2) Length uncertain (40 yr to over 1000)

                                    (3) Ends w/ rebellion of Gog & Magog

                        d. The Age to Come ("Eternal State" in Xn theology)

                                    (1) Resurrection

                                    (2) Judgment

                                    (3) Eternal state of punishment/reward

 

D. The End of the Jewish State

 

            1. The Roman Procurators (AD 6‑66)

Began with replacement of Archelaus, deposed at Jewish request for misgovernment

Revolt of Zealots at census of AD 6 a sign of things to come; Zealots grow stronger as Roman‑Jewish relations deteriorate

       


Rom emperor Gaius (Caligula) orders own statue erected in Jerusalem Temple (41); dies before carried out

Procurators continue (except for 41‑44, when Herod Agrippa I rules) until outbreak of Jewish revolt

In general, procurators did not understand Jews, were frequently antagonistic, aggravating conditions and so strengthening Zealots; last two (Albinus, Florus) especially wicked

 

            2. The (First) Jewish Revolt (AD 66‑73)

Started by incident between Jews and Gentiles in Caesarea, spread and fanned by procurator & Zealots to enflame whole country

Moderate Jews able to take leadership at first, but gradually lost out to more radical Zealots

Ended in destruction of Jerusalem, its temple (AD 70) and Jewish state; mopping up operation completed with fall of Masada in AD 73

 

E. Palestine after the Fall of Jerusalem (AD 70‑135)

 

            1. R. Johanan b. Zakkai & Jamnia

                        Johanan escaped besieged Jerusalem in coffin

got permission from Romans to establish rabbinical school and Sanhedrin at Jamnia

Rebuilt Judaism (w/o state or temple) along lines of Pharisaism, eventually leading to Mishnah & Talmuds

Jewish Xns excluded from synagogue by adding curse on Nazarenes to synagogue liturgy (AD 90‑100)

            2. The Bar‑Kochba (Second) Revolt (AD 132‑35)

Set off by Roman preparations to build pagan city Aelia Capitolina on site of Jerusalem

R. Akiba recognizes Simeon b. Koseba as Messiah & fulfillment of Num 24:17 (star = kochba)

Revolt at first successful, w/ Roman troops spread thin; eventually put down w/ considerable slaughter

                        Jews forbidden to come near Jerusalem (Aelia)

                        Judaism ceases to be a missionary religion

 

 

                                                                   PART TWO:

                             NEW TESTAMENT GEOGRAPHY & CHRONOLOGY

 

I. The Geography of Palestine

 

A. Physical Features (see Hammond Bible Atlas B-4, overhead & slides)

        on large scale, little change since NT times

 

            1. Major Regions from West to East

                        major structures form bands aligned N‑S

                        list these here moving from West to East

direction of prevailing winds (W => E), carrying moisture from Mediterranean, helps explain climate of each region

 

                        a. Coastal Plain / Plain of Sharon

                                    flat, fertile where not too sandy or salty

                                    easy to invade from outside country (from Egypt, Syria)

 

                        b. Shephelah / Lowlands

                                    low relative to central hill country (item c, below)

                                    rolling hills, wide valleys; travel along valleys

                                    still relatively easy to invade

 

                        c. Hill Country

                                    sharp hills, v‑shaped valleys; travel along ridges

                                    much more difficult to invade

use terracing for agriculture; good rainfall to W of main ridge, poor to E (cp rainfall W & E of Rockies)

     

                        d. Rift Valley

                                    geologic fault (graben) extending S into Africa

                                    wide u‑shaped valley, with Jordan R in middle

                                    hot & arid away from river, so irrigated for crops

 

                        e. Trans‑Jordan Plateau

higher than hill country, relatively well‑watered at W edge, but quickly becoming desert to E

 

            2. Smaller Geographic Features

                        listing these moving from N to S

 

                        a. Mt. Hermon

                                    S‑most large peak of Anti‑Lebanon range (see B‑8)

                                    snow‑covered all year, over 9000 ft high


 

                        b. Galilee & Mt. Tabor

                                    hilly, best‑watered area in Palestine

                                    higher in N, lower in S (Upper Gal, Lower Gal)

                                    reasonably cool except around Sea of Galilee

                                    Mt. Tabor is isolated peak, over 1900 ft, just N of Jezreel Valley

 

                        c. Jezreel Valley / Plain of Esdraelon

                                    E‑W valley connecting coast w/ Jordan V

                                    separates Samaria from Galilee

                                    easiest connection from Med Sea to Rift Valley

                                    so important for trade routes

 

                        d. Mt. Carmel

                                    long E‑W ridge on S side of Jezreel V

                                    max height about 1800 ft

                                    forms barrier to N‑S travel; trade routes thru passes;

                                                control of passes important militarily;

                                                Megiddo controls one such pass

 

                        e. Wilderness (of Judea)

a badlands‑like region E of Jerusalem, where combination of low rainfall and poor chalky soil produce a virtually uninhabited area

 

                        f. Negev

                                    arid land south of Hebron, flat to rolling

                                    soil good, but very little rainfall

                                    some agriculture possible using tricks to concentrate water

 

            3. Major Bodies of Water around Palestine

 

                        a. Mediterranean Sea

 large body of salt water, connected to Atlantic at Gibraltar

few natural ports on Palestine coast, so Jews did not become seafarers, involved in trade mostly as mid­dlemen

 

                        b. Sea of Galilee (Sea of Tiberias)

                                    fresh water lake, surface 600 ft below sea level

                                    fed by Jordan R which also continues as its outlet

                                    important for fishing then and now (see map B‑7)

                                    topography & climate can produce fierce storms

 

 


                        c. Jordan River

                                    headwaters on lower slopes of Mt. Hermon

descends about 2300 ft in 100 mi (not counting meanders) through Sea of Galilee to Dead Sea

 

                        d. Dead Sea (Lake Asphaltitus)

                                    surface is lowest point on earth, ‑1296 ft

                                    extremely salty; fish cannot live in it

                                    mined then and today for minerals

 

B. Political Features (overhead, Hammond, maps B‑26 and B‑5)

 

            1. Political Divisions during Ministry of Christ

 

                        a. Judea

                                    included Samaria and Idumea

                                    ruled by Roman procurators AD 6‑41, 44‑66,

                                    by Herod Agrippa 1 from 41‑44

 

                        b. Galilee

                                    area W of Sea of Galilee

ruled by Herod Antipas 4 BC ‑ AD 39, then by Roman procurators and H Agrippa 1 like Judea

 

                        c. Perea

                                    narrow strip E of Jordan R inhabited mainly by Jews

                                    ruled by same rulers as Galilee

 

                        d. Tetrarchy of Philip

                                    multi-ethnic region NE of Sea of Galilee

                                    mostly Gentile inhabitants

ruled by Philip, son of Herod the Gt, 4 BC ‑ 34 AD, then by Roman procurators and H Ag 1 as above

 

                        e. Decapolis

                                    a league of (usually ten) Hellenistic cities, plus their city territories

                                    mostly Gentile inhabitants

                                    independent of Antipas, Philip, Agrippa, under Romans

 

            2. Cities of Palestine during 1st Century AD (see map B‑26)

 

                        a. Jerusalem ‑ Jewish capital

                        b. Caesarea ‑ Roman capital of Palestine

                                    built as artifical port by Herod the Great

                                    both Jew and Gentile inhabitants

c. Sebaste ‑ OT Samaria rebuilt by Herod for his army veterans; inhabitants mostly Gentile

d. Tiberias ‑ new city built by Herod Antipas as capital for Galilee

e. Caesarea Philippi ‑ built by Philip as capital for his Tetrarchy

                        f. Decapolis Cities

                                    Scythopolis, Hippos, Gedara, Gerasa, Philadelphia

                        g. Galilean Towns

                                    Nazareth, Cana, Magdala, Capernaum, Chorazin, Bethsaida

                        h. Judean Towns

                                    Jericho, Bethany, Bethlehem, Emmaus

 

            3. Major Roads (see Hammond, map B‑5)

 

a. Via Maris (Way of the Sea) ‑ coastal road from Egypt,splits at Megiddo, one branch to Antioch, other to Damascus and Mesopotamia

b. King's Highway ‑ on T‑J Plateau, from Gulf of Aqabah to Damascus

c. Ridge Route thru Hill Country ‑ less important and more difficult travel, but connects Jerusalem w/ Galilee

 

            4. The Herodian Fortifications (see B‑26)

                        built by Herod Gt for personal safety

                        just three listed here, there were several more

 

                        a. Machaerus ‑ E of Dead Sea, where John Baptist put to death, acc to Josephus

b. Masada ‑ W of Dead Sea; fortified mesa with several palaces; last stand of Zealots AD 73

c. Herodium ‑ SE of Bethlehem; also fortified palace; Herod's tomb acc to Josephus

 

 

II. The Geography of Jerusalem (Hammond, B‑29, overhead, slides)

 

A. The Valleys around Jerusalem

 

            1. Hinnom ‑ W and S of city

                        as place where garbage burned, Ge‑Hinnom became picture of hell

 

            2. Kidron ‑ E of city betw Temple and Mt. of Olives

                        location of Gethsemane

 

3. Tyropoeon (cheesemakers) ‑ within city, betw Temple Mt. and higher hill of Upper City to W; now largely filled in

 

 

B. The Hills around Jerusalem ‑ the more important ones

 

            1. Ophel

                        site of City of Jebusites & David

 

            2. Moriah

                        site of Temple, and (app) Abraham's sacrifice

                        probably Zion = Ophel or Moriah

  

            3. Mt. of Olives

                        outside city c 1/2 mi to E

                        at edge of wilderness

                        on way from Jericho to Jerusalem

                        site of ascension

 

            4. Hill of Upper City

                        W of and higher than Ophel or Moriah

                        called Zion in Middle Ages, but prob misidentified

 

C. The City Walls in the N.T. Period

 

            1. South Wall

some dispute (see B‑29) whether wall enclosed Tyropoeon V at NT time; I believe it did, and we will test that way

                        prob (contra Hammond) wall followed N side of Hinnom V

 

            2. East Wall

                        on W side of Kidron V and along E side of Temple

 

            3. West Wall

                        on E side of upper part of Hinnom V

 

            4. North Walls

                        city most vulnerable on N, as not protected by gorges

                        a. 1st N Wall

                                    from Joppa Gate towers to middle of Temple

                        b. 2nd N Wall

                                    from Joppa Gate towers N, then E to Antonia

                        c. 3rd N Wall (not on B‑29, but see B‑34‑35)

                                    begun after Jesus' ministry, by Herod Agrippa I, finished during revolt

 

D. Sections of The City (Hammond, B‑34‑5, slides)

 

            1. City of David

                        old Ophel Hill; Hammond calls this Lower City

 

            2. Temple Mount

                        Mt Moriah

 

            3. Lower City

                        prob in Tyropoeon V, contra B‑25, etc.

 

            4. Upper City

                        hill betw Hinnom and Tyropoeon

 

            5. Second Quarter

                        betw 1st and 2nd North Walls

 

            6. New City / Bezetha

                        betw 2nd and 3rd North Walls; suburb at Jesus' time

 

E. Major Buildings, Structures

 

            1. Temple Complex

                        note courts and porticoes (B‑25, B‑29)

                        about 750 feet EW x 1500 feet NS

 

            2. Fortress Antonia

                        NW of Temple and adjoining it

traditionally site of Jesus' Roman trial, though many now think this was at Herod's Palace (below)

 

            3. Jaffa Gate Towers

                        3 built by Herod, named for brother Phasael, wife Mariamne, and friend Hippicus

 

            4. Herod's Palace

                        built by Herod the Great

                        prob used by Roman governor when in city, rather than by Herod Antipas

                        alternate site for Jesus' Roman trial

 

            5. Sanhedrin Building

                        Called "Hall of Hewn Stones" in Rabbinic literature

                        near Temple, but location now uncertain

                        prob site of Jesus' sentencing on Fri morning

 

            6. Hippodrome

                        stadium for chariot races (as in film Ben Hur)

                        location uncertain, some put in Tyropoean V

 

            7. Theatre

                        like Hippodrome, mentioned by Josephus, but location uncertain

 

F. Other Sites related to Jesus' Ministry

 

            1. Pool of Bethesda

                        N of Temple and NE of Antonia

                        five porticoes, see John 5

 

            2. Pool of Siloam

                        S(W) of Temple near junction of Tyropoeon and Hinnom, see John 9

 

            3. Golden Gate

                        E gate of Temple courts

                        Jesus app passed thru at triumphal entry, see Mark 11

 

            4, 5.  Upper Room & Caiaphas' House

                        both traditionally in Upper City

 

            6. Gethsemane

                        olive grove in Kidron V

                        several sites claimed

 

            7. Calvary / Golgotha

                         two sites claimed:

 

                        a. Church of Holy Sepulchre

no longer looks authentic, but most likely to be so on basis of archeological and historical evidence

                        b. Gordon's Calvary

prob more like what Calvary looked like in Jesus' time, but evidence against its authenticity

 

 

III. Mediterranean Geography

 

A. Physical Features (Hammond, B‑24)

 

            1. Bodies of Water

 

                        a. Mediterranean Sea

                                    called Great Sea in OT, not named in NT

                                    called Mare Internum by Romans

                        b. Black Sea

                                    N of Asia Minor

                        c. Aegean Sea

                                    betw Greece and Asia Minor

                        d. Adriatic Sea

                                    today restricted to area betw Italy and Greece

                                    in NT times, sometimes viewed extending to Central Med (Acts 27:27)

                        e. Ionian Sea

                                    sometimes lower part of Adriatic is so named

                        f. Tyrrhenian Sea

                                    triangular sea betw Italian boot, Sicilian football, Corsica and Sardinia

 

            2. Principal Islands

 

                        a. Cyprus

                                    NE corner of Med

                                    our metal copper named for island

                                    evangelized by Paul & Barnabas on 1st mj, Acts 13

                        b. Crete

                                    S of Aegean Sea, below Greece and Asia Minor

                                    home of ancient Minoan civilization before 1400 BC

                                    Titus put in charge of Xn work here by Paul (Tit 1:5)

                        c. Sicily

                                    football being kicked by Italian boot

                        d. Sardinia

                        e. Corsica ‑ Napoleon born here

                        f. Malta  (see B‑33)

                                    S of Sicily

                                    very small, but famous for Paul's shipwreck, Acts 27

                        g. Patmos (see B‑37)

                                    about 50 mi SW of Ephesus

                                    even smaller, hundreds of islands in Med this big

                                    site of John's banishment when he wrote Revelation

 

B. Political Features (1st cen AD; B‑24)

 

            1. Provinces of Roman Empire

 

                        a. Syria

                                    Palestine included for miltary purposes

                        b. Egypt (Aegyptus)

almost a private preserve of Emperor, to guarantee supply of grain for Rome and its dole to poor

                        c. Cilicia

                                    Paul's native province

 


                        d. Galatia

                                    central Asia Minor

                                    Paul's 1st mj in S part of province

                        e. Asia

                                    not continent, but western Asia Minor

                        f. Macedonia

                                    N of Greece

                                    Paul visited on 2nd mj

                        g. Achaia

                                    Greece proper

                        h. Other Provinces

                                    Britannia, Gallia, Hispania, Mauretania, Africa, Cyrenaica, Italia,

                                    Illyricum, Moesia, Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia

 

            2. Cities of Roman Empire

                        NOTE: 1,2,3 are largest cities; A,B,C mark famous schools

                        a. Jerusalem                 k. Miletus

                        b. Caesarea                  l. Ephesus

                        c. Tyre                         m. Troas

                        d. Damascus                n. Philippi

                        e. Antioch (Syria)(3)   o. Thessalonica

                        f. Tarsus (C)                p. Athens (A)

                        g. Pisidian Antioch     q. Corinth

                        h. Iconium                   r. Rome (1)

                        i. Lystra                       s. Carthage

                        j. Derbe                       t. Alexandria (2, B)

 

            3. Roman Road System (see Yamauchi, NT World, 117)

                        eventually a ¼ million mile system of paved roads!

 

                        a. Via Appia

                                    from Rome E to heel of boot

                        b. Via Egnatia

                                    across Macedonia, sort of extension of Via Appia

                        c. Old Route across central Asia Minor

                                    used by Paul from Antioch to Ephesus

                        d. Palestinian Roads (see B‑5)

                                    many upgraded to Roman quality in 2nd cen AD

 

 

 


IV. The Chronology of the New Testament

 

A. Origin of the Christian Era

 

            1. Problems of Ancient Chronology

                        Destruction of records

                        Use of differing calendars

                        Use of regnal years of various rulers

 

            2. Various Ancient Eras

                        attempts to solve problem of regnal years by using systems spanning centuries

 

                        a. Olympic Era (Ol)

                                    by olympiads (units of 4 years), then numbering years w/in olympiad

                                    started approx July 1, 776 BC

                                    used by many Greek & Hellenistic historians

 

                        b. Roman Era (AUC)

                                    from year of founding of Rome (ab urbe condita)

                                    some disagreement on starting year until 1st cen BC

                                    finally settled on starting January 1, 753 BC

                                    used by most Roman historians

 

                        c. Seleucid Era (AS - anno Seleucidae)

                                    from year of founding of Seleucid dynasty

                                    started Oct 7, 312 BC (Macedonian calendar)

                                    or Apr 3, 311 BC (Babylonian calendar)

                                    most widely used ancient era: used in 1 & 2 Macc, Josephus, Eusebius

           

                        d. Jewish Eras

                                    (1) Destruction of 2nd Temple

                                                occurred Aug 5, AD 70

                                                used in Palestine & some medieval Heb works

                                    (2) Era of World (AM ‑ anno mundi)

                                                measured from creation of world

                                                using Masoretic Text, no gaps, some guesswork

                                                starts Sept 21, 3761 BC

 

                        e. Era of Diocletian

                                    from accession of Diocletian as Rom emperor

                                    starts Aug 29, AD 284

 

            3. The Christian Era (AD ‑ anno Domini)

 

                        a. Dionysius the Little

                                    monastic scholar who devised AD system

                                    using information available at his time (525 AD)

                                    identified AD 1 with AUC 754

                                    Xn era uses Roman calendar, year beginning Jan 1

   

                        b. Resulting Synchronisms

                                    AD 1 = AUC 754 = Ol 194,4/195,1 = c312 AS

 

B. Gospel Chronology (see my syllabus, Gospel History)

 

            1. The Roman Emperors

In practice, most inscriptions, coins, etc dated by rule of emperors, etc., rather than by AUC era; w/ thousands of such items, most Roman events can be dated closely

 

Emperor

Date

Biblical or Other Event

Augustus

30 BC –AD 14

Birth of Christ

Tiberius

AD 14-37

Death & resurrection of Christ

Gaius (Caligula)

37-41

Statue to temple

Claudius

41-54

Famine in East, Acts 11:28

Expels Jews, Acts 18:2

Nero

54-68

Persecutes Christians

Deaths of Peter & Paul

Galba, Otho, Vitellius

68-69

69: Year of the 4 Emperors

Vespasian

69-79

Destruction of Jerusalem

Titus

79-81

 

Domitian

81-96

2nd major persecution

Nerva

96-98

 

Trajan

98-117

~ 100: death of John

Hadrian

117-138

Bar-Kochba revolt

 

               

            2. Beginning of Jesus' Ministry: AD 26/27 or 28/29

 

                        a. In reign of Tiberius (14‑37) and Pilate (26‑36)

 

                        b. John B's ministry dated by Luke 3:1 as beginnning in 15th yr of Tiberius:

                                    AD 28/29 if from beginning of sole reign

                                    AD 26/27 if from beginning of coregency with Augustus

 

                        c. Jesus cast out moneychangers early in ministry,

                                    when temple had been 46 yr in rebuilding:

                                    Josephus, Ant 15.11.1 gives starting date as 19/18 BC              

                                    so 46 yrs later = 26/27

                                    or if measured from completion of naos = 28/29

 

                        d. Summary

two choices; most presently favor earlier of two as better fitting accepted date for Jesus' birth

 

            3. Length of Jesus' Ministry

 

for us who accept biblical data, choices are 2+ and 3+ years, depending on interpretation of John 4:35 and John 5:1 (see my Gospel History syllabus)

results range from AD 29 to 33 for crucifixion & resurrection; commonest view is AD 30

 

            4. Birth of Jesus: about 5 BC

 

                        a. Reign of Augustus (Luke 2:1), so between 30 BC and AD 14

 

b. Herod still alive, so no later than 4 BC by best evidence; eclipse of moon mentioned by Josephus (Ant 17.6.4) calc for 12 Mar 4 BC; fits Josephus' remarks re/ length of Herod's reign

 

c. Census of Quirinius (Lk 2:2): a point of much debate, as only recorded census in AD 6; prob Lk refers to earlier ("first") census

 

                        d. Jesus about 30 years old at beginning of ministry (Lk 3:23): 

                                    works nicely for birth shortly before Herod's death:

                                    e.g., if born Dec, 5 BC, would have been 30 on Dec, AD 26;

need to rework chronology of Herod or take 30 yrs rather loosely to get later dates for Jesus' public ministry

 

 

C. Apostolic Chronology (see my syllabus, Apostolic History)

 

            1. Relative Chronology of Acts and Galatians

 

                        a. Chronological References in Acts

 

                                    1:3                   Jesus appeared to disciples for 40 days

                                                                        betw resurrection & ascension

 

                                    11:26               Paul & Barnabas in Antioch for 1 year

                                                                        before famine visit to Jerusalem

 

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