Notes for NTG716

Acts & Pauline Epistles

Robert C. Newman

Biblical Seminary
CONTENTS & OUTLINE FOR

NTG716 ACTS & PAULINE EPISTLES

I. Mediterranean Geography 6

A. Physical Features 6

1. Bodies of Water (6)

2. Principal Islands (6)

B. Political Features 7

1. Provinces of Roman Empire (7)

2. Cities (8)

3. Roman Road System (8)

II. The Chronology of the New Testament 9

A. Origin of the Christian Era 9

1. Problems of Ancient Chronology (9)

2. Various Ancient Eras (9)

3. The Christian Era (9)

B. Gospel Chronology 10

1. The Roman Emperors (10)

2. Beginning of Jesus' Ministry (10)

3. Length of Jesus' Ministry (11)

4. Birth of Jesus (11)

C. Apostolic Chronology 11

1. Relative Chronology of Acts & Galatians (11)

2. Some Connections with Secular History (13)

3. Suggested Absolute Chronology (13)

III. Introduction to Acts 15

A. Title of Acts 15

B. Text of Acts 15

C. Authorship of Acts 17

1. External Evidence (17)

2. Internal Evidence (19)

D. Destination of Acts 21

E. Date of Acts 22

1. Various Suggestions (22)

2. Positive Evidence (24)

F. Historical Accuracy of Acts 25

1. History of Opinion (25)

2. Testable Data (27)

G. Purpose of Acts 30

H. Sketch Outline of Acts 31

IV. Exegesis of Historical Passages 32

A. Preparation for Exegesis 32

B. Genres in Acts & Epistles 32

C. Historical Passages & the Genre "Narrative" 33

V. Paul's Early Epistles and Eschatology 35

A. The Early Epistles: 1-2 Thess and Gal 35

1. Letters of the Hellenistic Period (35)

2. Thessalonian Epistles (39)

3. Galatians (43)

B. Pauline Eschatology 50

1. Downpayment (50)

2. Nearness of the End (50)

3. Death & Intermediate State (50)

4. Israel (51)

5. Man of Lawlessness (51)

6. Rapture (51)

7. Parousia (52)

8. Resurrection (52)

9. Millennium (52)

10. Judgment (52)

11. Eternal State (52)

VI. Exegesis of Theological Passages 53

A. What is a "Theological Passage"? 53

B. Recognizing a Theological Passage 53

C. Exegeting a Theological Passage 53

VII. Mid-Term Test 55

A. How to Study 55

B. What to Study 55

VIII. Gentile Background to the New Testament 57

A. Hellenism 57

1. The Greek Language (57)

2. Greek Religion (57)

3. Greek Philosophy (58)

4. The Greek City (58)

5. Greek Art, Rhetoric, Literature (59)

6. Greek Athletics (59)

B. The Roman Empire 60

1. The Emperor (60)

2. The Empire (60)

3. The Army (60)

4. Taxes (61)

5. The People (61)

6. Transportation (62)

7. Roman Coinage (62)

IX. Paul's Middle Epistles and Soteriology 64

A. 1 & 2 Corinthians 64

1. The City of Corinth (1)

2. The Church in Corinth (2)

3. Background to 1 Corinthians (2)

4. Occasion of 1 Cornithians (2)

5. Sketch Outline of 1 Corinthians (3)

6. Background of 2 Corinthians (4)

7. Sketch Outline of 2 Corinthians (5)

8. Integrity of 2 Corinthians (6)

B. Romans 70

1. Order in the New Testament (70)

2. The City of Rome (71)

3. The Church in Rome (71)

4. Date and Place of Writing (73)

5. Occasion of Romans (73)

6. Sketch Outline of Romans (74)

7. The Integrity of Romans (74)

C. Pauline Soteriology 76

1. Summary (76)

a. Man's State

b. Man's Salvation

2. Pictures of Salvation (77)

a. Salvation

b. Redemption

c. Pardon

d. Justification

e. Cleansing

f. Healing

g. Reconciliation

h. Adoption

i. Regeneration

j. Resurrection

k. Creation

3. Some Additional Words re/ Salvation (79)

a. Donation (Grace)

b. Selection (Election)

c. Propitiation

d. Circumcision

e. Baptism

f. Lord's Supper

X. Exegesis of Controversy Passages 81

A. What is a Controversy Passage? 81

B. Identifying a Controversy Passage 81

C. Exegeting a Controversy Passage 81

XI. Paul's Prison Epistles and Christology 83

A. Prison Epistles 83

1. Introduction (83)

2. Ephesians (87)

3. Colossians (91)

4. Philemon (93)

5. Philippians (95)

B. Pauline Christology 97

XII. Exegesis of Exhortation Passages 99

A. What is an Exhortation Passage 99

B. Recognizing an Exhortation Passage 99

C. Exegeting an Exhortation Passage 99

D. Word Studies 100

XIII. The Pastoral Epistles & Last Days of Paul 102

A. The Pastoral Epistles 102

1. Recipients (102)

2. Authenticity (104)

3. Paul's Activities after Close of Acts (110)

4. Dates for Pastoral Epistles (111)

5. Outlines (112)

B. The Death of Paul and the Other Apostles 112

1. Scriptural Information (112)

2. Extra-Scriptural Information (114)

I. Mediterranean Geography

A. Physical Features

1

1. Bodies of Water

a. Mediterranean Sea

called "Great Sea" in OT, not named in NT, called "Mare Internum" by Romans

b. Black Sea

N of Asia Minor

c. Aegean Sea

between Greece and Asia Minor

d. Adriatic Sea

today restricted to area betw Italy and Greece; in NT times, sometimes viewed extending to Central Med (Acts 27:27)

e. Ionian Sea

sometimes lower part of Adriatic is so named

f. Tyrrhenian Sea

triangular sea betw Italian boot, Sicilian football, Corsica and Sardinia

2

2. Principal Islands

a. Cyprus

NE corner of Med; Metal copper named for island; evangelized by Paul & Barnabas on 1st mj, Acts 13

b. Crete

S of Aegean Sea, below Greece and Asia Minor; home of ancient Minoan civilization before 1400 BC; Titus put in charge of Xn work here by Paul (Tit 1:5)

c. Sicily

football being kicked by Italian boot

d. Malta

S of Sicily; very small, but famous for Paul's shipwreck, Acts 27

e. Patmos

about 50 mi SW of Ephesus; even smaller, hundreds of islands in Med this big; site of John's banishment when he wrote Revelation

B. Political Features (1st cen AD)

3

1. Provinces of Roman Empire

a. Syria

Palestine included for miltary purposes

b. Egypt (Aegyptus)

almost a private preserve of Emperor, to guarantee supply of grain for Rome and its dole

to poor

c. Cilicia

Paul's native province

d. Galatia

central Asia Minor

Paul's 1st mj in S part of province

e. Asia

not continent, but western Asia Minor

f. Macedonia

N of Greece

Paul visited on 2nd mj

g. Achaia

Greece proper

h. Other Provinces

Brittania, Gallia, Hispania, Mauretania, Africa,

Cyrenaica, Italia, Illyricum, Moesia, Bithynia,

Pontus, Cappadocia

2. Cities of Roman Empire

NOTE: 1,2,3 are largest cities; A,B,C mark famous schools

a. Jerusalem k. Miletus

b. Caesarea l. Ephesus

c. Tyre m. Troas

d. Damascus n. Philippi

e. Antioch (Syria)(3) o. Thessalonica

f. Tarsus (C) p. Athens (A)

g. Pisidian Antioch q. Corinth

h. Iconium r. Rome (1)

i. Lystra s. Alexandria (2,B)

J. Derbe

3. Roman Road System (see Yamauchi, NT World, 117)

eventually a 1/4 million mi system of paved roads!

4

a. Via Appia

from Rome E to heel of boot

b. Via Egnatia

across Macedonia, sort of extension of Via Appia

c. Old Route across

central Asia Minor; used by Paul from Antioch to Ephesus

d. Palestinian Roads

many upgraded to Roman quality in 2nd cen AD

II. The Chronology of the New Testament

A. Origin of the Christian Era

1. Problems of Ancient Chronology

Destruction of records

Use of differing calendars

Use of regnal years of various rulers

2. Various Ancient Eras

several attempts to solve problem of regnal years by using systems spanning centuries

a. Olympic Era (Ol)

by olympiads (units of 4 years), then numbering years w/in olympiad

started approx July 1, 776 BC

used by many Greek & Hellenistic historians

b. Roman Era (AUC)

from year of founding of Rome (ab urbe condita)

some disagreement on starting year until 1st cen BC

finally settled on starting January 1, 753 BC

used by most Roman historians

c. Seleucid Era (AS - anno Seleucidae)

from year of founding of Seleucid dynasty

started Oct 7, 312 BC (Macedonian calendar)

or Apr 3, 311 BC (Babylonian calendar)

most widely used ancient era: used in 1 & 2 Macc,

Josephus, Eusebius

d. Jewish Eras

(1) Destruction of 2nd Temple

occurred Aug 5, AD 70

used in Palestine & some medieval Heb works

(2) Era of World (AM ‑ anno mundi)

measured from creation of world

using Masoretic Text, no gaps, some guesswork

starts Sept 21, 3761 BC

e. Era of Diocletian

from accession of Diocletian as Roman emperor; starts Aug 29, AD 284

3. The Christian Era (AD ‑ anno Domini)

a. Dionysius the Little

monastic scholar who devised AD system

using information avail at his time (525 AD)

identified AD 1 with AUC 754

Xn era uses Roman calendar, year beginning Jan 1

b. Resulting Synchronisms

AD 1 = AUC 754 = Ol 194,4/195,1 = c312 AS

B. Gospel Chronology

1. The Roman Emperors

In practice, most inscriptions, coins, etc dated by rule of emperors, etc., rather than by AUC

era; w/ thousands of such items, most Roman events can be dated closely

EMPEROR DATE BIBLICAL OR OTHER EVENT

Augustus 30 BC ‑ AD 14 birth of Christ

Tiberius AD 14‑37 death & resurrection of X

Gaius 37‑41 statue to temple

Claudius 41‑54 famine in East, Ac 11:28

expels Jews, Ac 18:2

Nero 54‑68 persecutes Xy; death of Peter & Paul

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

Galba, Otho, 69: year of the 4

Vitellius 68‑69 emperors

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

Vespasian 69‑79 destruction of Jerusalem

Titus 79‑81

Domitian 81‑96 2nd major persecution

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

Nerva 96‑98

Trajan 98‑117 death of John

Hadrian 117‑138 Bar-Kochba revolt

2. Beginning of Jesus' Ministry: AD 26/27 or 28/29

a. In reign of Tiberius (14‑37) and Pilate (26‑36)

b. John B's ministry dated by Luke 3:1 as beginnning in 5th yr of Tiberius:

AD 28/29 if from beginning of sole reign

AD 26/27 if from beginning of coregency

c. Jesus cast out moneychangers early in ministry, when temple had been 46 yr in rebuilding:

Josephus, Ant 15.11.1 gives starting date as 19/18 BC, so 46 yrs later = 26/27

or if measured from completion of naos = 28/29

d. Summary

two choices; most presently favor earlier of two as better fitting accepted date for Jesus' birth

3. Length of Jesus' Ministry

for us who accept biblical data, choices are 2+ and 3+ years, depending on interpretation of

John 4:35 and John 5:1

results range from AD 29 to 33 for crucifixion & resurrection; commonest view is AD 30

4. Birth of Jesus: about 5 BC (or possibly 2 BC)

a. Reign of Augustus (Luke 2:1), so betw 30 BC and AD 14

b. Herod still alive, so no later than 4 BC by standard view; eclipse of moon mentioned by

Josephus (Ant 17.6.4) calc for 12 Mar 4 BC; but Ernest L.Martin argues for a later eclipse

in 1 BC

c. Census of Quirinius (Lk 2:2): a point of much debate, as only recorded census in AD 6;

prob Lk refers to an earlier ("first") census

d. Jesus about 30 years old at beginning of ministry (Lk 3:23): works nicely for birth shortly

before Herod's death: e.g., if born Dec, 5 BC, would have been 30 on Dec, AD 26; need to

rework chron of Herod or take 30 yrs rather loosely to get later dates for Jesus' public

ministry

C. Apostolic Chronology

1. Relative Chronology of Acts and Galatians

a. Chronological References in Acts

1:3 Jesus appeared to disciples for 40 days

betw resurrection & ascension

11:26 Paul & Barnabas in Antioch for 1 year

before famine visit to Jerusalem

18:2 Prisc & Aquila recently from Rome because

Claudius forced Jews to leave

18:11 Paul taught in Corinth 1‑1/2 years

[2nd miss journey at least 2 years]

19:8 Paul preached in Ephesus synagogue 3 mo

19:10 Paul taught in sch of Tyrannus 2 years

20:31 Paul's summary to Ephesian elders: 3 yr

20:3 Paul in Achaia 3 months

[3rd miss journey at least 3 or 4 years]

24:27 Paul in prison Caesarea 2 years

28:11 Paul's group shipwrecked on Malta 3 mo

28:30 Paul under house arrest in Rome 2 years

[dates dense near end of Acts, rare at beginning]

b. Chronological References in Galatians

1:18 Paul's 1st visit to Jerusalem after

conversion was 3 yr after

2:1 Paul made another visit 14 yr later

[ambiguity: 14 yr from when? what visit is this?]

c. Attempting a Relative Chronology from Close of Acts

EVENT RELATIVE YEAR

Close of Acts 0

Paul reaches Rome ‑2

Paul leaves Caesarea ‑3

Paul arrested in Temple ‑5

3rd m.j. ends ‑6

begins ‑9?

2nd m.j. ends ‑10?

begins ‑12?

Jerusalem council ‑13?

d. Attempting a Rel. Chron. from Conversion of Paul

EVENT RELATIVE YEAR

Paul's conversion 0

1st Jerusalem visit +3

Jerusalem council +14 or 17

2. Some Connections with Secular History

a. Death of Herod Agrippa I: AD 44

narrated in Acts 12:23 and Josephus, Ant 19.18.1

b. Edict of Claudius: 49

mentioned in Acts 18:2 and Suetonius, Claudius 25

but no date given until Orosius (c415)

c. Gallio, Proconsul of Achaia: 51‑53

Acts 18:12 and Delphi inscription

d. Accession of Festus: 57‑60

Acts 24:27; ref to by Josephus several times, but

date of accesssion not given

of possible range given above, 59‑60 seems more

likely in view of Paul's remark to predecessor

Felix in Acts 24:10

e. Roman Fire: night of July 18/19, AD 64

Nero later blames Xns, persecution begins

f. Fall of Jerusalem: late Aug, 70

g. Domitian persecution: AD 95‑96

probably occasion of John's exile to Patmos

3. Suggested Absolute Chronology of NT Events

YEAR BC/AD EVENT

5 BC Birth of Jesus

26/27 AD Beginning of Jesus' Ministry

30 Resurrection of Jesus

32‑37 Conversion of Paul

44 Death of James, son of Zebedee

48‑50 1st Missionary Journey

50 Jerusalem Council

51‑53 2nd Missionary Journey

54‑58 3rd Missionary Journey

58‑60 Paul imprisoned, Caesarea

61‑63 Paul imprisoned, Rome

63ff Paul's later travels

64 Roman fire; Xy becomes a crime

64‑68 Deaths of Peter & Paul

70 Fall of Jerusalem to Romans

95‑96 John on Patmos

after 98 Death of John; end of apostolic age

III. Introduction to Acts

A. Title of Acts

‑Titles vary between manuscripts, as in Gospels also.

‑The shortest title occurs in Sinaiticus (!): ΠΡΑΞΕIΣ

which means "activities" or "book of activities".

‑This is probably too short to be original; typically

need another name in genitive to show whose acts narrated

‑A slightly longer form occurs in the subscription to !

and also in the title of B, D, Ψ, and a few others:

ΠΡΑΞΕIΣ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ

(like ancient titles for activities of indiv, city)

‑Some longer forms, adding ΤΩΝ and/or ΑΓIΩΝ, seem later.

‑The longest is "The Acts of the Holy Apostles (by) Luke

the Evangelist."

‑Thus the title may not be original, but can hardly be

later than 150 AD due to the divergence of text families.

B. Text of Acts

‑Manuscripts available about the same as for the Gospels,

though some (e.g., p²⁹, E) contain Acts only (see Metzger,

Textual Commentary on the Greek NT).

‑The main peculiarity is the difference between

the Alexandrian and Western texts:

-The Alexandrian text (p⁴⁵ p⁷⁴ ! A B C Ψ 33 etc.) is shorter,

less colorful, sometimes more obscure;

‑The Western text (p²⁹ p³⁸ p⁴⁸ D syr^h* it^h Cyprian Augustine)

is almost 1/10 longer, more picturesque, circumstantial:

Some examples:

[N] = Nestle only lists variant; [U] = UBS also lists:

[N] 11:28 ‑ "WHEN WE WERE GATHERED TOGETHER, one of them said"

‑This extra we‑section occurs with Agabus the prophet in

Antioch and may imply that Luke was from Antioch.

‑The Alex. and Byz. texts use "they" (3rd person) here.

[N] 12:10 ‑ "they went out AND DOWN SEVEN STEPS and ..."

‑As Peter is fleeing from the jail. Alex. omits.

‑Western family adds a detail.

[N] 14:2 ‑ "the brethren, BUT THE LORD QUICKLY GAVE PEACE"

‑Alex. text does not explain how the stirred‑up crowd

was calmed so that v.3 would make sense: "therefore

they spent a long time ..."

‑Western addition smooths and adds detail.

[U] 15:20 ‑ substitutes golden rule for "things strangled"

‑This one affects the outcome of the Jerusalem council.

‑Alex. text has "strangled, blood" which looks more like

the ceremonial law.

‑West. text has golden rule, blood (murder) which looks

more like the moral law.

[U] 19:9 ‑ "from the 5th to the 10th hour" (11 AM to 4 PM)

‑Paul's teaching at the nearby school is specified to be

during the time of day when the regular classes would

not be in session.

‑The Greeks normally took a "siesta" during the hot part

of the day.

‑Note the addition of historical details, smoothing, adding

Luke's presence, and the golden rule substitute.

Theories offered to explain these variations:

(1) Two editions by original author, Alex. later

Jean Leclerc, J.B. Lightfoot, developed by F. Blass

West - original, rough; Alex - refined

(2) Two eds. by original author, West. later

George Salmon

Luke gave public readings, adding West material to explain, etc.

(3) Western text interpolates

Westcott & Hort, W.H.P. Hatch, F.G. Kenyon, M. Dibelius

Haphazard growth of text during 1st & 2nd centuries

(4) Alex. original, West. text a later revision (not by author)

J.H. Ropes, R.P.C. Hanson

(5) West. original, Alex. a revision

Albert C. Clark

Metzger, w/ Hänchen, think West. text secondary, but both (3) and (4) above involved, plus peculiarities of D alone

UBS, Nestle committees not agreed on which theory correct, so eclectic; generally favor Alex., but feel some West. readings are factually accurate.

C. Authorship of Acts

1. External Evidence: unanimous for Luke

a. Muratorian Canon ‑ Italy ‑ 170‑190 AD

"The Acts however of all the Apostles are written in one book. Luke puts it shortly to the most excellent Theophilus, that the several things were done in his own presence, as he also plainly shows by leaving out the passion of Peter, and also the departure of Paul from town on his journey to Spain."

‑"All the Apostles" appears strange as most are not followed

in Acts. This term probably was used to distinguish Acts

from the many heretical Acts of individual Apostles

(Peter, Paul, etc.).

‑The further comments look like a guess for why the book

ends where it does: Luke wrote only what he saw.

‑But Luke does not claim that all things recorded were done

in his presence, only the "we" passages.

‑Better to say Luke did not include the other events as

they had not occurred yet.

b. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyon ‑ France ‑ c180 AD

"Now, that this Luke was inseparable from Paul and his fellow‑worker in the Gospel, he himself made clear, not vaunting, but guided by truth itself. For when both Barnabas and John, who was called Mark, had departed from Paul and had sailed to Cyprus, he says: 'We arrived at Troas.' And when Paul had seen a Macedonian man in a dream saying: 'Come over into Macedonia and help us, Paul,' he says: 'Immediately we sought to proceed into Macedonia, knowing that the Lord had called us to proclaim the Gospel to them.'"

Against Heresies 3.14.1

‑Irenaeus student of Polycarp, student of John in Asia Minor.

‑"Not vaunting" means not advertising his own name (does not

say "I, Luke" anywhere).

‑Refers to 2 of the we‑sections.

‑In Against Heresies he cites or mentions Acts over 50 times,

referring to it as Scripture and as by Luke.

c. Clement of Alexandria ‑ Egypt ‑ 150‑203 AD

"... even as Luke, in the Acts of the Apostles, makes mention of Paul, who said: 'O men of Athens, in all things I perceive that you are very religious.'"

Miscellanies 5.82.4

‑Cites Luke as author, names the work, quotes from Acts 17.

‑In these 3 sources from before 200 AD, we find Luke called

the author 3 times, the book's title given 2 times, and 3

quotations or allusions made which identify the text with

that which we have today.

d. Tertullian ‑ North Africa ‑ (c200 AD)

‑Many quotations as Scripture, says by Luke.

e. Eusebius ‑ Caesarea ‑ (c 270‑340 AD)

"But since we have reached this point, it is reasonable to sum up the said writings of the New Testament. Indeed, the holy quaternion of the Gospels must be arranged among the first books which the book of the Acts of the Apostles follows... Among the spurious must be placed also the book of the Acts of Paul... All these would be among the disputed writings; but nevertheless of necessity we have made a catalogue of these also... in order that we should be able to know these same writings and those produced by the heretics indeed in the name of the Apostles, as if containing the Gospels of Peter and Thomas and Matthias, or beside these, even of some others, or as if containing the Acts of Andrew and John and of the other Apostles; none of which anyone of successive generations of churchmen ever deemed worthy of mention in a treatise."

Church History 3.25

‑Eusebius had access to the largest Christian library in the

world. Was started by Origen, had the Hexapla, etc.

‑Notes there are no writings of early church fathers who

mention as legitimate any Gospels or Acts beyond the canonical

4 Gospels and Acts.

‑The unanimous testimony of the church at c200 AD is that the

Acts we have today was written by Luke, Paul's companion.

There is no external evidence pointing to anyone else.

2. Internal Evidence: also points to Luke

‑Writer does not give his name, but the internal clues

are stronger than for any other NT book which does not

explicitly name its author.

a. The "we" sections

16:10‑17 Writer present with Paul on the journey from

Troas to Philippi (2nd miss. journey, c51 AD).

20:5‑15 Returning with Paul from Greece (end of the 3rd

missionary journey, c57‑58 AD).

[break for Paul's sermon to Ephesian elders].

21:1‑18 Continuing on to Jerusalem. Total trip is from

Philippi to Jerusalem (3rd MJ).

27:1‑28:16 Trip from Caesarea to Rome. (c60 AD).

‑Luke may have spent the time in Palestine researching

and writing the Gospel of Luke and early Acts.

‑These sections give the impression that the writer was

present on these 3 trips, but did not want to intrude

himself strongly into the narrative.

‑Liberals who want to avoid Luke as the author say some

later editor used a diary.

‑But even if it is the diary of an eyewitness, it records

miracles and early agreements among the Apostles about

theology, which liberals don't like.

b. As the writer was with Paul in Rome, we can look at the

prison epistles we assume were written from there and

see who was with Paul.

Aristarchus ‑All 4 are mentioned by name in Acts,

Mark but in the 3rd person, whereas author

Timothy refers to self in 1st person in

Tychichus prologue to Acts

Demas ‑Later deserted Paul so hard for him to

write Acts.

Epaphras ‑Delegates sent from Colosse and

Epaphroditus Philippi to Rome. No evidence they

traveled there initially with Paul.

Jesus Justus ‑Has a mixed Jewish and Latin name,

implying he knew Latin and was probably

a Roman, but otherwise we know nothing

of him. A possibility.

Luke ‑Is called a physician in Col. 4:14.

‑Can more or less eliminate all these but the last two.

c. Linguistic argument

‑see William Kirk Hobart, Medical Language of St. Luke.

‑Finds that Luke‑Acts contains an unusual amount of medical

terminology characteristic of the Hippocratic school of

medicine known from writings of Hippocrates (300 BC) and Galen

(200 AD).

‑The healing incidents show the use of more technical terms

than the other Gospels.

‑Also see the natural use of medical terms in narratives

which reflect a medical influence (just as scientific terms

["data base," "model," etc.] tend to occur naturally in

these notes since they were produced by physicists).

Conclusion: Acts was written by a companion of Paul who

had a detailed knowledge of NT-period medical terminology.

As only one companion of Paul is called a physician, the

author was most likely Luke.

D. The Destination (or recipient) of Acts

‑"Theophilus" is cited as the recipient in Acts 1:1.

‑Tho Luke probably wrote for a larger audience, he dedicated it

to this person who might underwrite/encourage its publication

(common in secular literature; Josephus' Antiquities was

dedicated to Epaphroditus).

‑Since Theophilus means "one who loves God," some take this

as an allegorical name, like "Everyman" or "Christian"

‑This may seem plausible to us, as few names in our culture make

sense in English.

‑But in Greek and Hebrew cultures, theophoric (deity‑carrying)

names were common; the Greek ones usually involved obviously

pagan deities (in 3 John: Gaius, Demetrius, Diotrephes).

‑Thus Theophilus is a valid Greek name, and such as might have

been adopted by a Jew (since deity name not explicitly pagan).

‑Greeks would not expect a name like this to be allegorical.

‑Also the title κράτιστε (Luke 1:3) would hardly be used

with an "everyman" figure, as it is a title of respect used

for people with higher social status, governmental authority.

‑Luke uses it 3 times when referring to the procurators of

Judea (Acts 23:26, 24:3, 26:25).

‑Since Luke does not use this title for Theophilus in Acts, some

propose that Theophilus became a Christian between Luke & Acts;

Christians didn't address each other with titles.

‑Can't prove this.

‑καηχέω in Luke 1:4, "so that you might know the exact truth

about the things you have been taught," supports this idea, but

Luke could be writing a further explanation to a non‑Christian.

‑Can reasonably conclude that Theophilus was a real person

in a governmental or high social position. Luke may have known

him from Antioch (Luke's probable home) or from one of the

places he stayed.

E. Date of Acts

1. Various suggestions

a. 2nd century AD

‑This view was common in radical circles in the 19th cent.

under F.C. Baur's influence.

‑Baur applied Hegel's thesis‑antithesis‑synthesis theory

to church history. Saw early conflict between Jewish and

Gentile elements in James and Galatians; but since Acts

has everything blended, it must be late => middle or end

of the 2nd cent. AD, when the old catholic church formed.

‑Such a late 2nd cent. view has been weakened by later

archaeological findings; still, many liberals would date

Acts at around 100‑120 AD.

b. 94‑100 AD

‑Proposed by A.S. Peake at Univ. of Manchester.

‑Noted common features in Acts and Josephus' Antiquities,

so suggested that Luke borrowed from Josephus.

‑This would date Acts after the Antiq. (pre‑94 AD).

‑Peake's evidence comes from 2 overlapping passages:

1) Antiq. 20.5.1‑2 (20.97-100) and Acts 5:36‑37.

‑Gamaliel (Acts) mentions two revolts: by Theudas, and later by Judas of Galilee.

‑Josephus lists them in reverse chronological order.

[Fadus, AD 44-46; Tiberius, 46-48]

‑Sufficient details of Judas are given in Acts and Antiq.

to identify them as references to the same event.

‑Peake sees Theudas as a clear error by Acts.

‑Actually three possible explanations:

a) Liberals say one author must be wrong, so it must be

Luke.

‑Peake says Luke copied from Josephus sloppily here.

b) But Luke as seen elsewhere is a careful historian, as

was Josephus.

‑Is more reasonable that Josephus made the mistake, as

Luke is writing closer to the event.

c) There were two rebels named Theudas.

‑Many Jewish rebels were from the same families, so

there could be a grandson relationship here.

‑The name "Theudas" was common enough that they could

have been two independent men.

‑In any case, no evidence of literary dependence here.

‑Both refer to same names, but details are different.

2) Antiq. 19.8.2 (19.343-53) and Acts 12:19‑23

‑Death of Herod Agrippa I (c44 AD).

‑His death contributed to the instability which caused the

Roman war in 66 AD.

‑He was a Jewish king (both a Herod and a Hasmonean) and

liked by the Romans and most everyone.

‑Acts: Was addressing the people of Tyre and Sidon at

Caesarea, did not give glory to God; was struck by angel

of the Lord, eaten by worms, and died.

‑Antiq.: Was at spectacle at Caesarea, addressing a crowd,

did not rebuke men who called him divine; saw an owl (bad

omen), was overcome with abdominal pains; died in 5 days.

‑As this event (death of a famous and pivotal Jewish leader)

was rather well‑known, there is no need for literary

dependence, especially due to the unique features in each.

‑These are very weak parallels to base a literary dependence

theory upon.

c. 70‑80 AD (after the fall of Jerusalem)

‑Many liberals and some "conservatives" hold this view

(e.g., Sanday, Zahn).

‑Date Acts after Luke, but date Luke after the fall of

Jerusalem in order to post‑date the prophecy of its

destruction given in Luke 21:20.

‑Seems completely unnecessary, since God knows future.

d. 62‑64 AD

‑This is the standard conservative position, and is based

on the events narrated in Acts (see below).

2. Positive date evidence from the scope of the book

a. Earliest date possible, c61 AD

‑The last procurator mentioned is Porcius Festus; Paul then

travels to Rome, stays there c2 years (book ends).

‑The accession of Festus was not likely to have been before

59 AD.

b. Latest date likely

1) Paul's death is not hinted at or mentioned.

‑Very strange if Acts was written after it.

‑Liberals say Luke stopped there because his audience knew

the rest of the story.

‑But we don't know much.

‑Tradition from a century later: Paul was martyred near

Rome under Nero, who committed suicide in 68 AD.

‑Eusebius dated Paul's death at about 67 AD.

=> Acts was written before 68 AD.

2) Attitude of Roman Empire to Christianity is favorable or

neutral in Acts.

‑Christianity was viewed as a sect of Judaism, so legal.

‑But after July 64 AD, the attitude changed drastically.

‑Disastrous 12‑day fire in Rome burned much of the city.

‑Nero's men were suspected of starting it.

‑Nero shifted the blame to Christians; put many to death.

‑Became illegal even to be a Christian (cf. Pliny's letter

to Trajan) for the next 250 years.

‑No hint of this hostile atmosphere in Acts.

‑Luke does not react negatively to officials or vice versa.

‑Christians had freedom to live in peace and spread views.

‑How could hostile atmosphere not appear if Acts was

written after these events?

3) Abrupt ending of Acts ‑ suggests was brought up to date.

‑Gives full descriptions until the closing sentence.

‑Could be a summary sentence because he expected to write

a 3rd volume (of which there is no known record).

‑Not sure what volume would include unless it was written

much later (c95 AD as some suggest).

‑Zahn argues from Greek in Acts 1:1 that 3rd was planned.

πρωτov = first of several (in Classical Greek).

πρoτερov = first of two (like "former").

‑This holds for Classical Greek, but in Hellenistic Greek,

πρωτov can be used for either meaning.

‑Although Luke uses the most Classical style in the NT, he

is still very Hellenistic in general usage.

‑Is most reasonable that Luke brings us up to date at the

end of Acts and no time has elapsed between the last events

and its writing.

‑Luke knows nothing of the disastrous events which are soon

to befall Christianity at this time.

‑Thus the latest possible date for Acts would be c64 AD.

F. Historical Accuracy of Acts

1. History of Opinion

‑Among Christians until the Enlightenment, Acts was

considered very accurate historically.

‑During Renaissance, some began to cast doubt on all ancient

documents.

‑Continued trend away from Acts' historicity until recently.

‑Reached low point with work of F.C. Baur (c1850)

Christianity and the Christian Church of the First Three

Centuries (1853).

‑Baur thought Acts was a propaganda document which showed

how the early church in the 2nd century liked to think of

early Christianity: harmony between apostles, all enemies

on the outside. Baur claimed strong division within Xy.

‑But with the rise of archeology in these territories in

the next generation, general opinion has risen greatly.

William M. Ramsay ‑ Scots theologian trained in skeptical view of historicity.

‑Became interested in archeology of Asia Minor.

‑Studied inscriptions.

‑Realized Baur's view of unreliability of Acts was incorrect.

‑Became more and more conservative with time.

Some of his books:

The Historical Geography of Asia Minor, 1890.

The Church in the Roman Empire Before A.D. 170, 1893.

St. Paul, The Traveller and the Roman Citizen, 1895.

A Historical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles to the Galatians, 1899.

The Cities of St. Paul, 1907.

The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament, 1915.

Ramsay concluded that "Luke was an historian of the first

rank." Not only was he an accurate chronicler (geography,

places, names) but had a true historic sense (picked out

significant events and important points for his purpose).

‑Ramsay's work has not been overturned.

‑Naturally, those who deny miraculous cannot concede that

Luke is accurate in his reports of miracles, so there is

still much suspicion concerning Acts.

‑Complaints against the history in Acts are not from the

data, but from those who dislike its historicity.

‑Recent evangelical treatments:

F.F. Bruce, New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?

I.H. Marshall, Luke: The Historian and Theologian.

A.N. Sherwin‑White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.

- Sherwin-White comments:

"As soon as Christ enters the Roman orbit at Jerusalem, the confirmation begins. For Acts the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming. Yet Acts is, in simple terms and judged externally, no less of a propaganda narrative than the Gospels, liable to similar distortions. But any attempt to reject its basic historicity even in matters of detail must now appear absurd." (189)

‑Cannot discount historicity just because author was a

Christian.

2. Testable data regarding historicity

a. Official Titles

‑Roman Empire was a patchwork of governments because parts were acquired at different times:

‑Egypt: Emperor's private property.

‑Imperial provinces: controlled by emperor if area was in

danger at the present for some reason: revolt, at edge

of the empire, etc.

‑Emperor sent out rulers called procurators, propraetors,

or prefects (name depended on the area).

‑Senatorial provinces: "safe" areas controlled by senate.

‑Senate sent out proconsuls.

‑A province could (and did) switch back and forth

between the two types.

‑Significant to find Acts having the right title at the right time, since control sometimes switched.

‑Acts is always right.

1) •vθύπατoς = proconsul (Greek equivalent to Latin term)

= head Roman official of senatorial province.

‑was a common term.

derivation: Greek translation of Latin t.t.

•vθz = previously, formerly (pro).

àπατoς = consul.

Acts 13:7,8,12 ‑ Sergius Paulus, proconsul at Cyprus.

‑confirmed by inscription found in 1865 in Cyprus with his

name, called it senatorial province.

Acts 18:12 ‑ "Gallio was proconsul of Achaia"

‑Achaia had switched: senatorial (27 BC ‑ 15 AD)

‑> imperial (15‑44 AD)

‑> senatorial (after 44 AD)

‑Gallio was proconsul c51‑53 (have inscription).

Rest of titles were not so well known from antiquity, as rarer.

‑Some once suspected that Luke invented these names as general

descriptive titles. Now seen to be technical terms.

2) πoλιτάρχης = "city ruler"

Acts 17:6,8 ‑ city authorities at Thessalonica.

‑Now known from 19 inscriptions to be the

proper technical title for leaders in

Macedonian cities.

3) •σιάρχης = "leaders of Asia" (province of Empire)

Acts 19:31 ‑ Asiarchs befriended Paul at Ephesus.

‑Technical term for leading men in Asia, several at

Ephesus, elected by citizens from wealthiest and most

aristocratic, in expectation they would personally finance

public games and festivals; later were high priests of

imperial religion, but not in 1st century (McRay,

Archaelology & the NT, 255); friendship with Paul is

evidence of early date of Acts (Bruce, NT History, 319).

4) πρäτoς = "chief" or "first" man

Acts 28:7 ‑ leading man of the island Malta, Publius.

‑Both Greek and Latin inscriptions show this

was the proper title for the ruler of Malta.

b. Geographical References

‑Numerous and accurate: 32 countries, 54 cities, 9 islands in the Mediterranean Sea ‑ all put in the right place.

‑For example: Paul's voyage and shipwreck, Acts 27.

James Smith, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, gives a very sophisticated account, including Greek and Latin inscriptions from various locations.

‑Sailed the whole route and was amazed at Luke's accuracy.

‑Shows it was consistent with the weather, the way the wind blows and how ancient ships were handled (to prevent being blown into North Africa).

‑Felt he could fix the very spot on which the wreck at Malta occurred.

‑Concluded Luke was not a sailor (as he didn't use technical terms), but was an experienced traveller, acquainted with seamanship, and able to convey details to common people.

‑Is considered one of the most detailed and accurate accounts of a sea voyage from antiquity.

c. Problem passages: not claiming we know answer to everything.

1) Reconciliation of Luke and Paul concerning Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 and Gal. 2.

-Events are clearly similar, but differ on some details. E.g.,

private vs. public meeting,

didn't add anything to Paul vs. Jerusalem decision re/ Gentiles to abstain from food

offered to idols, blood, etc.

‑Evangelicals disagree whether Gal. 2 refers to Jerus Council.

(Newman, et al, think it does; Bruce, et al, don't).

‑Suggest Paul is writing to those who are already familiar with the Council and its letter (his

opponents certainly knew of it) so he does not need to go over it again but just deals

with particular problems, perhaps in answer to their claims.

2) Luke (Acts 12:20-23) and Josephus (Ant. 19:343ff) concerning the death of Herod Agrippa I.

"(343) Now, when Agrippa had reigned three years over all Judea, he came to the city Caesarea, which was formerly called Strato's Tower; and there he exhibited shows in honor of Caesar, upon his being informed that there was a certain festival celebrated to make vows for his safety. At which festival, a great multitude was gotten together of the principal persons, and such as were of dignity through his province. (344) On the second day of which shows he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a contexture truly wonderful, and came into the theatre early in the morning; at which time the silver of his garment being illuminated by the fresh reflection of the sun's rays upon it, shone out after a surprising manner, and was so resplendent as to spread a horror over those that looked intently upon him; (345) and presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place, and another from another (though not for his good), that he was a god; and they added, "Be thou merciful to us; for although we have hitherto reverenced thee only as a man, yet shall we henceforth own thee as superior to mortal nature." (346) Upon this the king did neither rebuke them, nor reject their impious flattery. But, as he presently afterwards looked up, he saw an owl sitting on a certain rope over his head, and immediately understood that this bird was the messenger of ill tidings, as it had once been the messenger of good tidings to him; and fell into the deepest sorrow. A severe pain also arose in his belly, and began in a most violent manner. (347) He therefore looked upon his friends, and said, "I whom you call a god, am commanded presently to depart this life; while Providence thus reproves the lying words you just now said to me; and I, who was by you called immortal,am immediately to be hurried away by death. But I am bound to accept of what Providence allots as it pleases God; for we have by no means lived ill, but in a splendid and happy manner." (348) When he said this, his pain was become violent. Accordingly he was carried into the palace; and the rumor went abroad everywhere, that he would certainly die in a little time. (349) But the multitude presently sat in sackcloth, with their wives and children, after the law of their country, and besought God for the king's recovery. All places were also full of mourning and lamentation. Now the king rested in a high chamber, and as he saw them below lying prostrate on the ground, he could not himself forbear weeping. (350) And when he had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly for five days, he departed this life, being in the fifty‑fourth year of his age, and in the seventh year of his reign."

Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 19.8.1-2 (343-350)

‑Details vary: angel; owl, etc.; but no indication that Luke is mistaken on any point

G. Purpose of Acts: Why did Luke write it?

‑Key verses in introduction give hints:

1:1 - former work "about all that Jesus began to do and teach".

‑implies a theme of what Jesus continued to do and teach through the Holy Spirit and by

means of the apostles.

1:8 Outlines the book, describing the progress of the Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome.

‑Empowering by the Holy Spirit is seen as continuing the ministry of Jesus after He was

taken up.

‑By extension from Luke 1:1‑4: so Theophilus might know the certainty of the history of the

early Christian church.

‑i.e., this purpose of Luke is continued into Acts.

H. Sketch Outline of Acts

Scale: "|" = approximately 1 chapter.

‑Structure appears consciously to follow Acts 1:8:

Outline Verse: 1:8 ‑|----------------------------------|

| |

| The Gospel spreads |

| in Jerusalem |

At end of each | |

section are | |

Summary/ 6:7 ‑|‑-------‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|

Transition | |

Verses: | Through Palestine |

| |

9:31 ‑|‑-------‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|

| |

| To Antioch |

| |

12:24 ‑|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑-------‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|

| |

| To Asia (Minor) |

| |

16:5 ‑|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑-------‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|

| |

| |

| To Europe (Greece) |

| |

19:20 ‑|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑-------‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑|

| |

| |

| |

| |

| To Rome |

| |

| |

| |

| |

28:31 ‑|‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑-------‑|

(also a summary at close)

‑Some of these transition verses are quite brief

-The idea common to all references is the increasing growth of the church.

IV. Exegesis of Historical Passages

A. Preparation for Exegesis:

Some features we need to continually build

1. English (native language) Bible Knowledge

OT has 929 chapters, NT has 260, total 1189

Need to read several chapters/day

Once thru per year: 3.26 chs/day

4 chs/day: thru OT once, NT twice

2. Biblical Language Competency

Keep up via regular translation, vocab review,

grammar (Pastor Al Jackson: thru Metzger yearly)

TVT recommends verse/day from each testament

3. Bible Background

Special study for specific passages

commentaries, encyclopedias

be realistic: don't overkill & then give up

Wide reading:

have read over 50 books/yr since 1968

over 100 for six of these

usually over 50 in religion

4. Spiritual Insight

Gained thru experience w/ own problems, plus learning

via helping others with theirs

Crucial to have a close communion, love for Lord

B. Genres in Acts & Epistles

Genre: a type of literature

may be as broad as distinction between prose/poetry

may be as narrow as limerick, parable

Genres covered in class exegesis:

1. Narrative:

Acts 15:22-29 combines both (1) and (2)

TP: Acts 10:34-46 combines (1) and Sermon

Frequent in Acts

2. Letter:

see above

some subgenres below in next major section

3. Diatribe:

1 Cor 15:12-28 (eschatological)

TP: Rom 4:1-11 (soteriological)

James uses this genre

4. Controversy/Polemic:

Col 2:8-23 (Christological/soteriological)

TP: Gal 3:6-14 (soteriological)

5. Exhortation:

1 Tim 6:11-21

Genres not covered in class:

6. Miracle Account:

Frequent in Acts: covered in Synoptics

7. Hymn, Poem:

TP: Col 1:15-20 may be such (Christological)

8. Sermon:

evangelistic in Acts

some think 1 John and Hebrews belong here

9. Discourse:

TP: Col 1:15-20 (Christological)

TP: 2 Thess 2:1-12 (eschatological)

10. Doxology:

Frequent at end of epistles

e.g., Rom 16:25-27

11. Thanksgiving:

Frequent at beginning of epistles

e.g., 1 Cor 1:4-9

12. Prayer (Report):

Frequent near beginning of epistle

e.g., Eph 1:15-23

C. Historical Passages and the Genre "Narrative"

Not all historical passages are in the narrative genre, and not all narratives need be historical. Due to inspiration of Scripture, non-historical narratives would only be found in parables, etc. But a historical passage might be a letter (as in Acts 15, above), or part of a hymn (Pss 105-06), or such.

1. Use the standard newpaper reporter's questions to sketch out what is happening: who? what? when? where? why? how? etc.

2. Be on the lookout for major terms, especially ones which are puzzling or ambiguous. Here we must look for the ambiguity of the word in the Greek, as translators into English or whatever can hardly be expected to preserve the ambiguities of the original language. Do each of the various possible meanings of the Greek word make any sense in this passage? If so, does it make any difference?

3. How does the event fit into the overall flow of salvation history? How does it fit into the immediate context that the author has given it? Does this help us to understand what is going on?

4. Check over some commentaries to see if the historical background sheds any light on the passage. If some particular activity, custom, etc., seems to be important in the passage, see if you can find out more about this in a Bible encyclopedia or such.

5. What features of the narrative does the author seem to be emphasizing? Look for repetition, positioning, etc.

6. Historical narratives are generally the easiest parts of the Bible to understand (with some definite exceptions!) but they are often the hardest to use for preaching and teaching. Some directions in which to investigate:

Exemplary (1 Cor 10:6): Are we to imitate or avoid imitating particular persons, actions, attitudes?

Salvation Historical (Acts 1:1): What does the narrative tell us about what God, Jesus, Holy Spirit, apostles, are doing in God's redemptive program?

Theological (Rom 1:21-2:16): What does the narrative show us about human nature, about wickedness, righteousness, and what sorts of things can happen in a fallen world which is yet in the process of being redeemed?

Typological (Heb 2:13-14): For OT narratives, how do they prefigure major themes in redemption, particularly the work of Christ?

V. Paul's Early Epistles and His Eschatology

A. The Early Epistles: 1-2 Thessalonians, Galatians

‑About 1/2 of the NT is in the form (genre) of letters (including Revelation)

-1 John and Hebrews may be sermonic form, though sent as letters.

1. Letters of the Hellenistic Period and Paul's Letters

a. Normal format of an ancient letter

1) Sender(s) ‑‑ nominative case. Like modern letterhead.

2) Recipient(s) ‑‑ dative case. To so-and-so.

3) Greeting ‑‑ infinitive (usually χαίρειv)

‑Meaning: Rejoice!

‑Usually translated as "Greetings."

‑‑ may involve comments about health of either sender or recipient

4) Text of letter.

5) Closing ‑‑ takes various forms.

‑In a business letter, may be omitted, or be

"Farewell §ρρωσo - 2s perf. m/p impv.

(be healthy)" §ρρωσθε - 2p from ρώvvυμαι

‑An informal letter may include greetings from

friends, etc. ‑ •σπάζoμαι.

Biblical Examples:

‑In the NT, we have 2 letters besides NT books themselves:

(1) Acts 23:26ff Letter sent with Paul from the Tribune to the governor at Caesarea.

Sender ‑‑ "Claudius Lysias"

Recipient ‑‑ "To the most excellent governor Felix"

(Note: same title as Theophilus has)

Greeting ‑‑ "Greetings" (χαίρειv)

Text

Closing ‑‑ "Farewell" (in some manuscripts).

(2) Acts 15:23ff Letter sent by the Jerusalem Council.

Sender ‑‑ "The Apostles and brothers who are elders"

Recipient ‑‑ "To the brethren in Antioch and Syria ..."

Greeting ‑‑ "Greetings" (χαίρειv)

Text

Closing ‑‑ "Farewell" (§ρρωσθε).

‑Note this is also a business letter format.

Extra-biblical examples:

Loeb CL, Selected Papyri, 3 vol. set of secular materials:

v.1 Private ‑ agreements, receipts, wills, letters, prayers.

v.2 Public documents.

v.3 Literary papyri.

We are interested in vol. 1. (#266 in LCL series)

‑Same format in these letters, but sometimes give date also.

‑Recipient's name was on the outside of the scroll.

‑Remarks about health are common here (not so much in Paul):

e.g., 1:91, 93, 96, 104

‑Letter no. 1:107 has personal closing salutations,

as do 1:110, 111, 112, 113.

-§ρρωσo/θε occurs in 1:89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96.

b. Paul's modifications of standard letter format

1) Longer letters; all sections tend to be longer.

‑Philemon is the exception, and is typical of the length of

letters in Loeb.

‑Example: Romans:

sender 6 vv.

recipient lengthened slightly

greetings lengthened slightly

text 15 chapters

closing 27 vv. with greetings

2) Greetings and closing were characteristically Christian.

‑χαίρειv is neutral term and is sometimes used by Xians (cf. the Jerusalem Council).

‑But Paul used χάρις (grace) and εÆρήvη (peace, from Shalom)

and sometimes he added "mercy".

‑Closing frequently has a benediction (a prayer for them or praise to God)

instead of "be in good health."

‑cf. Romans 16:25‑27.